英文论文写作技巧
来源:学生作业帮助网 编辑:作业帮 时间:2024/11/01 11:46:39 写作技巧
篇一:英文论文写作技巧
我并不是大牛,但也算是在外文期刊上发了几篇文章,现在我写文章2天可以写成,一周可以完稿。以前写的文章老是refuse,现在大多都是revised,摸索写文章的路真的很艰辛,研二上学期我写的4篇文章,结果改来改去的,整的快崩溃了,现在好了,写的文章能拿到
1.5左右的杂志上基本就accept了。
我觉得写文章之前要先有思路,你怎么去写怎么写的和别人不同,有新意。这里面的文章很大,我也说不透,只是参透了一二,和大家分享,望大家不要耻笑。我毕竟是个硕士研究生。 我觉得论文写很简单,主要是能够发表出去。下面我简单讲下我的思路。有相同或不同见解的留下言,共同交流,一起进步。
我是材料出身,搞的是催化,文章的第一步要有图,也就是说首先把图做的漂漂亮亮的,不管是SEM,TEM,Uv-vis,FTIR,还是催化效果图。、图片放到你的文章里就是你的思路,图片放好了 你的思路就出来了,这是就关键的过程,放图的过程中你要考你怎么写,你的文章新的地方在哪?;图做好了也放好了,就是写文章了,写文章也很快了,因为思路有了你的文章也构思好了。我在这里给出我写文章时的程序。对于文章主体部分,我觉得先写 Results and discussion,写完了根据其内容下个Conclusion,然后根据Conclusion写Abstract(因为它们俩有些许的类似),而后补充Experimental。最后也是最难写的地方Introduction,这个让审稿人一看就能知道你的文章的水平,所以写好Introduction是关乎论文是否收录的关键所在。我和外国审稿人专家关于审稿交流过意见,他们也是这样认为,他们也认为Introduction是整个文章的脸面,这是他们主要审的地方,在这里能看到你的创新点,创新点不够直接refuse;Introduction写的还可以的话,就看Results and discussion,这部分其实主要看的是图,你的图的清晰度质量,以及性能图。我审过一篇Journal of Hazardous Materials上面的文章,我也是这样审的。当然是咱们国内某名牌大学的文章,做的是催化,我也是做这个的不知为什么编辑发来让我审,我也感觉很莫名。后来编辑告诉我和我的文章有些类似还称我是专家,教授……
下面我引用了一些总结的写作经验,我觉得很有用。大家认真看看,在此先祝福大家论文高中,硕果累累不减当年勇时:
1. 前言部分
1.1 如何指出当前研究的不足以及有目的地引导出自己的研究的重要性
通常在叙述了前人成果之后,用However来引导不足,比如
However, little information...
little attention has been devoted to…
little work...
little data / little research
or few studies / investigations / few attempts have been don on…
or none of these studies
has (have) been less
done on ... / focused on / attempted to
conducted / investigated / studied
(with respect to)
OR To the author's knowledge... There is little information available in literature about... Until recently, there is some lack of knowledge about...
Previous research (studies, records) has (have)
failed to consider
ignored
misinterpreted
neglected to
overestimated, underestimated
misleaded
thus, these previous results are
inconclusive / misleading…
unsatisfactory / questionable /controversial..
Uncertainties (discrepancies) still exist ...
一定要注意绝对不能全面否定前人的成果,即使在你看来前人的结论完全不对。这是前人工作最起码的尊重,英文叫做给别人的工作credits.
所以文章不要出现非常negative的评价,比如Their results are wrong, very questionable, have no commonsense, etc.
可以婉转地提出:
Their studies may be more reasonable if they had considered this situation.
Their results could be better convinced if they ...
OrTheir conclusion may remain some uncertainties.
1.2.之后引导出一种新方法,或者一种新方向。
如果研究的方法以及方向和前人一样,可以通过下面的方式强调自己工作的作用: However, data is still scarce
rare
less accurate
there is still dearth of
We need to / aim to / have to
provide more documents / data / records / studies
increase the dataset
Further studies are still necessary... / essential...
为了强调自己研究的重要性,一般还要在However之前介绍自己研究问题的反方面,另一方面等等, 比如:
1)时间问题
如果你研究的问题时间上比较新,你就可以大量提及对时间较老的问题的研究及重要性,然后说(However),对时间尺度比较新的问题研究不足
2)物性及研究手段问题
如果你要应用一种新手段或者研究方向,你可以提出当前比较流行的方法以及物质性质,然后说对你所研究的方向和方法,研究甚少。
3)研究区域问题
首先总结相邻区域或者其它区域的研究,然后强调这一区域研究不足
4)不确定性
虽然前人对这一问题研究很多,但是目前有两种或者更多种的观点,这种uncertanties, ambiguities,值得进一步澄清
5)提出自己的假设来验证
如果自己的研究完全是新的,没有前人的工作进行对比,在这种情况下,你可以自信地说,根据提出的过程,存在这种可能的结果,本文就是要证实这种结果。
We aim to test the feasibility (reliability) of the ...
It is hoped that the question will be resolved (fall away) with our proposed method (approach).
1.3. 如何提出自己的观点
We aim to…
This paper reports on…
provides results..
extends the method…
focus on..
The purpose of this paper is to..
Furthermore, Moreover, In addition,, we will also discuss...
1.4. 圈定自己的研究范围
前言的另外一个作用就是告诉读者包括(reviewer)你的文章主要研究内容。如果处理不好,reviewer会提出严厉的建议,比如你没有考虑某种可能性,某种研究手段等等。为了减少这种争论,在前言的结尾你就要明确提出本文研究的范围:
1)时间尺度问题
如果你的问题涉及比较长的时序,你可以明确地提出本文只关心这一时间范围的问题。 We preliminarily focus on the older (younger)...
或者有两种时间尺度的问题 (long-term and short term),你可以说两者都重要,但是本文只涉及其中一种
2) 研究区域的问题
和时间问题一样,明确提出你只关心这一地区
1.5. 最后的原场
在前言的最后,还可以总结性地提出,这一研究对其它研究的帮助。
或者说,further studies on ... will be summarized in our next study (or elsewhere)
总之,其目的就是让读者把思路集中到你要讨论的问题上来。减少争论(arguments).
2. 怎样提出观点
在提出自己的观点时,采取什么样的策略很重要。不合适的句子通常会遭到reviewer的置疑。
1)如果观点不是这篇文章最新提出的,通常要用
We confirm that...
2)对于自己很自信的观点,可用
We believe that...
3)在更通常的情况下,由数据推断出一定的结论,
用, Results indicate, infer, suggest, imply that...
4) 在及其特别的情况才可以用We put forward (discover, observe..) .. "for the first time". 来强调自己的创新。
5) 如果自己对所提出的观点不完全肯定,可用
We tentatively put forward (interpret this to..)
OrThe results may be due to (caused by)/ attributed to / resulted from..
OrIt seems that .. can account for (interpret) this..
要注意这些结构要合理搭配。如果通篇是类型1)和5),那这篇文章的意义就大打折扣。如果全是2),肯定会遭到置疑。所以要仔细分析自己成果的创新性以及可信度。
3. 连接词与逻辑
写英文论文最常见的一个毛病就是文章的逻辑不清楚。解决的方法有:
1)句子上下要有连贯,不能让句子之间独立
常见的连接词语有,
also, in addition, afterwards, moreover, Furthermore, further,
However, although, unlike, in contrast, Unfortunately,
Similarly, alternatively, parallel results, Compared with other results,
In order to, despite, For example
consequently, thus, therefore...
用好这些连接词,能够使观点表达得有层次,更加明确。
比如,如果叙述有时间顺序的事件或者文献,
最早的文献可用AA advocated it for the first time.
接下来,可用Then BB further demonstrated that..
再接下来,可用Afterwards, CC..
如果还有,可用More recent studies by DD..
如果叙述两种观点,要把它们截然分开
AA put forward that........ In contrast, BB believe
orUnlike AA, BB suggest…
orOn the contrary (表明前面的观点错误,如果只是表明两种对立的观点,用in contrast), BB..
如果两种观点相近,可用
AA suggest ….. Similarly ( alternatively), BB..
OrAlso, BB…
orBB also does …
表示因果或者前后关系,可用 Consequently, therefore, as a result,
表明递进关系,可用furthermore, further, moreover, in addition,
当写完一段英文,最好首先检查一下是否较好地应用了这些连接词。
2) 段落的整体逻辑
经常我们要叙述一个问题的几个方面。这种情况下,一定要注意逻辑结构。
首先第一段要明确告诉读者你要讨论几个部份
...Therefore, there are three aspects of this problem have to be addressed.
The first question involves...
The second problem relates to …
The third aspect deals with...
上面的例子可以清晰地把观点逐层叙述。
Or, 可以直接用First, Second, Third..... Finally,..
当然,Furthermore, in addition等可以用来补充说明。
4. 正文部份的整体结构
小标题是比较好的方法把要讨论的问题分为几个片段。
一般第一个片段指出文章最为重要的数据与结论。补充说明的部份可以放在最后一个片段。
一定要明白文章的读者会分为多个档次。文章除了本专业的专业人士读懂以外,一定要想办法能让更多的外专业人读懂。所以可以把讨论部份分为两部份,一部份提出观点,另一部份详细介绍过程以及论述的依据。这样专业外的人士可以了解文章的主要观点,比较专业的讨论他可以把它当成黑箱子,而这一部份本专业人士可以进一步研究。
5. 关于abbreviation
如果文章用了很多的Abbreviation, 两种方法加以解决
1) 在文章最好加上个Appendix,把所有Abbreviation列表
2) 在不同的页面上,不时地给出Abbreviation的含义,用来提醒读者。
总之,写文章的目的是要让读者读懂,读得清晰,并且采取各种措施方便于读者。
5. Discussion 部分
5. 1时态
(a) 指出结果在哪些图表中列出,常用一般现在时。如:Figure 2 shows the variation in the temperature of the samples over time.
(b) 叙述或总结研究结果的内容为关于过去的事实,所以通常采用过去时。如:After flights of less than two hours, 11% of the army pilots and 33% of the civilian pilots reported back pain. (c) 对研究结果进行说明或由其得出一般性推论时,多用现在时。如:The higher incidence of back pain in civilian pilots may be due to their greater accumulated flying time.
(d) 不同结果之间或实验数据与理论模型之间进行比较时,多采一般现在时(这种比较关系多为不受时间影响的逻辑上的事实)。如:These results agree well with the findings of Smith, et al.
篇二:英文论文写作技巧
英文科技论文写作
英文科技论文写作是进行国际学术交流必需的技能。一般而言,发表在专业英语期刊上的科技论文在文章结构和文字表达上都有其特定的格式和规定,只有严格遵循国际标准和相应刊物的规定,才能提高所投稿件的录用率。
撰写英文科技论文的第一步就是推敲结构。最简单有效的方法即采用IMRaD形式(Introduction,Materials and Methods,Results,and Discussion),这是英文科技论文最通用的一种结构方式。
IMRaD结构的逻辑体现在它能依次回答以下问题:
Introduction(引言):研究的是什么问题?
Materials and Methods(材料和方法):怎样研究这个问题?
Results(结果):发现了什么?
Discussion(讨论):这些发现意味着什么?
按照这个结构整体规划论文,有一个方法值得借鉴,即剑桥大学爱席比教授提出的“概念图”。首先在一张大纸上(A3或A(转载于:www.Zw2.cN 爱 作 文 网)4纸,横放)写下文章题目(事先定好题目很重要),然后根据IMRaD的结构确定基本的段落主题,把他们写在不同的方框内。你可以记录任何你脑海中闪现的可以包括在该部分的内容,诸如段落标题、图表、需要进一步阐述的观点等等,把它们写在方框附近的圈内,并用箭头标示它们的所属方框。画概念图的阶段也是自由思考的阶段,在此过程中不必拘泥于细节。哪些东西需要包括进文章?还需要做哪些工作,是找到某文献的原文,还是补画一张图表,或者需要再查找某个参考文献?当你发现自己需要再加进一个段落时就在概念图中添加一个新框。如果你发现原来的顺序需作调整,那就用箭头标示新的顺序。绘制概念图的过程看似儿童游戏,但其意义重大,它可以给你自由思考的空间,并通过图示的方式记录你思维发展的过程。这便是写论文的第一步:从整体考虑文章结构,思考各种组织文章的方法,准备好所需的资料,随时记录出现的新想法。采用这个方法,不论正式下笔时是从哪一部分写起,都能够能做到大局不乱。
英文科技论文的基本格式包括:
Title-论文题目
Author(s)-作者姓名
Affiliation(s) and address(es)-联系方式
Abstract-摘要
Keywords-关键词
Body-正文
Acknowledgements-致谢,可空缺
References-参考文献
Appendix-附录,可空缺
Resume-作者简介,视刊物而定
其中正文为论文的主体部分,分为若干章节。一篇完整的科技论文的正文部分由以下内容构成:
Introduction-引言/概述
Materials and Methods-材料和方法
Results-结果
Discussion-讨论
Conclusions-结论/总结
下面对科技论文主要构成部分的写法和注意事项进行详细介绍。
1.Title(论文题目)
由于只有少数人研读整篇论文,多数人只是浏览原始杂志或者文摘、索引的论文题目。因此须慎重选择题目中的每一个字,力求做到长短适中,概括性强,重点突出,一目了然。
论文题目一般由名词词组或名词短语构成,避免写成完整的陈述句。在必须使用动词的情况下,一般用分词或动名词形式。题目中介词、冠词小写,如果题目为直接问句,要加问号,间接问句则不用加问号。
具体写作要求如下:
(1)题目要准确地反映论文的内容。作为论文的“标签”,题目既不能过于空泛和一般化,也不宜过于繁琐,使人得不出鲜明的印象。为确保题目的含义准确,应尽量避免使用非定量的、含义不明的词,如“rapid”,“new”等;并力求用词具有专指性,如“a vanadium-iron alloy”明显优于“a magnetic alloy”。
(2)题目用语需简练、明了,以最少的文字概括尽可能多的内容。题目最好不超过10 ~ 12个单词,或100个英文字符(含空格和标点),如若能用一行文字表达,就尽量不要用2 行(超过2行有可能会削弱读者的印象)。在内容层次很多的情况下,如果难以简短化,最好采用主、副题名相结合的方法,主副题名之间用冒号(:)隔开,如:Importance of replication in microarray gene expression studies: statistical methods and evidence from repetitive CDNA hybridizations (Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 2000, 97(18): 9834 ~ 9839),其中的副题名起补充、阐明作用,可起到很好的效果。
(3)题目要清晰地反映文章的具体内容和特色,明确表明研究工作的独到之处,力求简洁有效、重点突出。为表达直接、清楚,以便引起读者的注意,应尽可能地将表达核心内容的主题词放在题名开头。如The effectiveness of vaccination against in healthy, working adults (N Engl J Med, 1995, 333: 889-893)中,如果作者用关键词vaccination作为题名的开头,读者可能会误认为这是一篇方法性文章:How to vaccinate this population? 相反,用effectiveness作为题名中第一个主题词,就直接指明了研究问题:Is vaccination in this population effective? 题名中应慎重使用缩略语。尤其对于可有多个解释的缩略语,应严加限制,必要时应在括号中注明全称。对那些全称较长,缩写后已得到科技界公认的,才可使用。为方便二次检索,题名中应避免使用化学式、上下角标、特殊符号(数字符号、希腊字母等)、公式、不常用的专业术语和非英语词汇(包括拉丁语)等。
(4)由于题目比句子简短,并且无需主、谓、宾,因此词序就也变得尤为重要。特别是如果词语间的修饰关系使用不当,就会影响读者正确理解题目的真实含意。例如:Isolation of antigens from monkeys using complement-fixation techniques,可使人误解为“猴子使用了补体结合技术”。应改为:Using complement-fixation techniques in isolation of antigens from monkeys,即“用补体结合技术从猴体分离抗体”。
2.Author(s)(作者姓名)
按照欧美国家的习惯,名字(first name) 在前,姓氏(surname / family name / last name) 在后。但我国人名地名标准规定,中国人名拼写均改用汉语拼音字母拼写,姓在前名在后。因此,若刊物无特殊要求,则应按我国标准执行。如果论文由几个人撰写,则应逐一写出各自的姓名。作者与作者之间用空格或逗号隔开。例如: Wan Da, Ma Jun。
3.Affiliation(s) and address(es)(联系方式)
在作者姓名的下方还应注明作者的工作单位,邮政编码,电子邮件地址或联系电话等。
要求准确清楚,使读者能按所列信息顺利地与作者联系。例如:
Neural Network-Based Adaptive Controller Design of Robotic Manipulators with an Observer
Sun Fuchun Sun Zengqi
Dept. of Computer Science and Technology, State Key Lab of Intelligent Technology & Systems
Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P.R.ChinaEmail: sfc@s1000e.cs.tsinghua.edu.cn
也有刊物在论文标题页的页脚标出以上细节,在论文最后附上作者简介和照片。
4.Abstract(摘要)
摘要也称为内容提要,是对论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述。其作用主要是为读者阅读、信息检索提供方便。
摘要不宜太详尽,也不宜太简短,应将论文的研究体系、主要方法、重要发现、主要结论等,简明扼要地加以概括。
摘要的构成要素:
研究目的——准确描述该研究的目的,说明提出问题的缘由,表明研究的范围和重要性。研究方法——简要说明研究课题的基本设计,结论是如何得到的。
结果——简要列出该研究的主要结果,有什么新发现,说明其价值和局限。叙述要具体、准确并给出结果的置信值。
结论——简要地说明经验,论证取得的正确观点及理论价值或应用价值,是否还有与此有关的其它问题有待进一步研究,是否可推广应用等。
摘要的基本类型:
摘要主要有两大类:资料性摘要(informative abstract),说明性摘要(descriptive abstract),还有一种为二者的结合,称为结合型。一般刊物论文所附摘要都属于这两类。另有结构型的摘要,遵循一定的格式和套路,便于计算机检索。
说明性摘要——只向读者指出论文的主要议题是什么,不涉及具体的研究方法和结果。它一般适用于综述性文章,也用于讨论、评论性文章,尤以介绍某学科近期发展动态的论文居多。资料性摘要——适用于专题研究论文和实验报告型论文,它应该尽量完整和准确地体现原文的具体内容,特别强调指出研究的方法和结果、结论等。这类摘要大体按介绍背景、实验方法和过程、结果与讨论的格式写。
结合型摘要——是以上两种摘要的综合,其特点是对原文需突出强调的部分做出具体的叙述,对于较复杂,无法三言两语概括的部分则采用一般性的描述。
结构性摘要——随着信息科学和电子出版物的发展,近年来又出现了一种新的摘要形式即结构性摘要。这类摘要先用短语归纳要点,再用句子加以简明扼要的说明,便于模仿和套用,能规范具体地将内容表达出来,方便审稿,便于计算机检索。
摘要的撰写要求:
(1)确保客观而充分地表述论文的内容,适当强调研究中创新、重要之处(但不要使用评价性语言);尽量包括论文中的主要论点和重要细节(重要的论证或数据)。
(2)要求结构严谨、语义确切、表述简明、一般不分段落;表述要注意逻辑性,尽量使用指示性的词语来表达论文的不同部分(层次),如使用“We found that...”表示结果;使用“We suggest that...”表示讨论结果的含义等。
(3)排除在本学科领域方面已成为常识的或科普知识的内容;尽量避免引用文献,若无法回避使用引文,应在引文出现的位置将引文的书目信息标注在方括号内;不使用非本专业的读者尚难于清楚理解的缩略语、简称、代号,如确有需要(如避免多次重复较长的术语)使用非
同行熟知的缩写,应在缩写符号第一次出现时给出其全称;不使用一次文献中列出的章节号、图、表号、公式号以及参考文献号。
(4)要求使用法定计量单位以及正确地书写规范字和标点符号;众所周知的国家、机构、专用术语尽可能用简称或缩写;为方便检索系统转录,应尽量避免使用图、表、化学结构式、数学表达式、角标和希腊文等特殊符号。
(5)摘要的长度:ISO规定,大多数实验研究性文章,字数在1000~5000字的,其摘要长度限于100~250个英文单词。
(6)摘要的时态:摘要所采用的时态因情况而定,应力求表达自然、妥当。写作中可大致遵循以下原则:①介绍背景资料时,如果句子的内容是不受时间影响的普遍事实,应使用现在式;如果句子的内容为对某种研究趋势的概述,则使用现在完成式。②在叙述研究目的或主要研究活动时,如果采用“论文导向”,多使用现在式(如:This paper presents...);如果采用“研究导向”,则使用过去式(如:This study investigated...)。③概述实验程序、方法和主要结果时,通常用现在式,如:We describe a new molecular approach to analyzing ...。④叙述结论或建议时,可使用现在式、臆测动词或may, should, could等助动词,如:We suggest that climate instability in the early part of the last interglacial may have...。
(7)摘要的人称和语态:作为一种可阅读和检索的独立使用的文体,摘要一般只用第三人称而不用其他人称来写。有的摘要出现了“我们”、“作者”作为陈述的主语,这会减弱摘要表述的客观性,有时也会出现逻辑上讲不通。由于主动语态的表达更为准确,且更易阅读,因而目前大多数期刊都提倡使用主动态,国际知名科技期刊“Nature”,“Cell“等尤其如此。
5.Keywords(关键词)
关键词是为了满足文献标引或检索工作的需要而从论文中取出的词或词组。国际标准和我国标准均要求论文摘要后标引3~8个关键词。关键词既可以作为文献检索或分类的标识, 它本身又是论文主题的浓缩。读者从中可以判断论文的主题、研究方向、方法等。关键词包括主题词和自由词两类:主题词是专门为文献的标引或检索而从自然语言的主要词汇中挑选出来的,并加以规范化了的词或词组;自由词则是未规范的即还未收入主题词表中的词或词组。关键词以名词或名词短语居多,如果使用缩略词,则应为公认和普遍使用的缩略语,如IP、CAD、CPU,否则应写出全称,其后用括号标出其缩略语形式。
6.Introduction(引言)
引言位于正文的起始部分,主要叙述自己写作的目的或研究的宗旨,使读者了解和评估研究成果。主要内容包括:介绍相关研究的历史、现状、进展,说明自己对已有成果的看法,以往工作的不足之处,以及自己所做研究的创新性或重要价值;说明研究中要解决的问题、所采取的方法,必要时须说明采用某种方法的理由;介绍论文的主要结果和结构安排。
写作要求如下:
(1)尽量准确、清楚且简洁地指出所探讨问题的本质和范围,对研究背景的阐述做到繁简适度。
(2)在背景介绍和问题的提出中,应引用“最相关”的文献以指引读者。要优先选择引用的文献包括相关研究中的经典、重要和最具说服力的文献,力戒刻意回避引用最重要的相关文献(甚至是对作者研究具某种“启示”性意义的文献),或者不恰当地大量引用作者本人的文献。
(3)采取适当的方式强调作者在本次研究中最重要的发现或贡献,让读者顺着逻辑的演进阅读论文。
(4)解释或定义专门术语或缩写词,以帮助编辑、审稿人和读者阅读稿件。
(5)适当地使用“I”,“We”或“Our”,以明确地指示作者本人的工作,如:最好
使用“We conducted this study to determine whether...”,而不使用“This study was conducted to determine whether...”。 叙述前人工作的欠缺以强调自己研究的创新时,应慎重且留有余地。可采用类似如下的表达:To the author's knowledge...;There is little information available in literature about...;Until recently, there is some lack of knowledge about...等等。
(6)引言的时态运用:①叙述有关现象或普遍事实时,句子的主要动词多使用现在时,如:“little is known about X”或“little literature is available on X”。②描述特定研究领域中最近的某种趋势,或者强调表示某些“最近”发生的事件对现在的影响时,常采用现在完成时,如:“few studies have been done on X”或“little attention has been devoted to X”。③在阐述作者本人研究目的的句子中应有类似This paper, The experiment reported here等词,以表示所涉及的内容是作者的工作,而不是指其他学者过去的研究。例如:"In summary, previous methods are all extremely inefficient. Hence a new approach is developed to process the data more efficiently.”就容易使读者产生误解,其中的第二句应修改为:“In this paper, a new approach will be developed to process the data more efficiently.” 或者,“This paper will present (presents) a new approach that process the data more efficiently.”。
7.Materials and Methods(材料和方法)
在论文中,这一部分用于说明实验的对象、条件、使用的材料、实验步骤或计算的过程、公式的推导、模型的建立等。对过程的描述要完整具体,符合其逻辑步骤,以便读者重复实验。具体要求如下:
(1)对材料的描述应清楚、准确。材料描述中应该清楚地指出研究对象(样品或产品、动物、植物、病人)的数量、来源和准备方法。对于实验材料的名称,应采用国际同行所熟悉的通用名,尽量避免使用只有作者所在国家的人所熟悉专门名称。
(2)对方法的描述要详略得当、重点突出。应遵循的原则是给出足够的细节信息以便让同行能够重复实验,避免混入有关结果或发现方面的内容。如果方法新颖、且不曾发表过,应提供所有必需的细节;如果所采用的方法已经公开报道过,引用相关的文献即可(如果报道该方法期刊的影响力很有限,可稍加详细地描述)。
(3)力求语法正确、描述准确。由于材料和方法部分通常需要描述很多的内容,因此通常需要采用很简洁的语言,故使用精确的英语描述材料和方法是十分重要的。需要注意的方面通常有:①不要遗漏动作的执行者,如:“To determine its respiratory quotient, the organism was...”,显然,the organism不能来determine;又如:“Having completed the study, the bacteria were of no further interest.”,显然,the bacteria不会来completed the study。②在简洁表达的同时要注意内容方面的逻辑性,如:“Blood samples were taken from 48 informed and consenting patients...the subjects ranged in age from 6 months to 22 years”,其中的语法没有错误,但6 months的婴儿能表达informed consent?③如果有多种可供选择的方法能采用,在引用文献时提及一下具体的方法,如:“cells were broken by as previously described[9]”不够清楚,应改为:“cells were broken by ultrasonic treatment as previously described[9]”。
(4)时态与语态的运用:①若描述的内容为不受时间影响的事实,采用一般现在时,如: A twin-lens reflex camera is actually a combination of two separate camera boxes。②若描述的内容为特定、过去的行为或事件,则采用过去式,如:The work was carried out on the Imperial College gas atomizer, which has been described in detail elsewhere[4,5]。③方法章节的焦点在于描述实验中所进行的每个步骤以及所采用的材料,由于所涉及的行为与材料是讨论的焦点,而且读者已知道进行这些行为和采用这些材料的人就是作者自己,因而一般都
篇三:英文论文写作技巧_l
英语学术论文常用句型
Beginning
1. In this paper, we focus on the need for
2. This paper proceeds as follow.
3. The structure of the paper is as follows.
4. In this paper, we shall first briefly introduce fuzzy sets and related concepts
5. To begin with we will provide a brief background on the
Introduction
1. This will be followed by a description of the fuzzy nature of the problem and a detailed presentation of how the required membership functions are defined.
2. Details on xx and xx are discussed in later sections.
3. In the next section, after a statement of the basic problem, various situations involving possibility knowledge are investigated: first, an entirely possibility model is proposed; then the cases of a fuzzy service time with stochastic arrivals and non fuzzy service rule is studied; lastly, fuzzy service rule are considered.
Review
1. This review is followed by an introduction.
2. A brief summary of some of the relevant concepts in xxx and xxx is presented in Section 2.
3. In the next section, a brief review of the .... is given.
4. In the next section, a short review of ... is given with special regard to ...
5. Section 2 reviews relevant research related to xx.
6. Section 1.1 briefly surveys the motivation for a methodology of action, while
1.2 looks at the difficulties posed by the complexity of systems and outlines the need for development of possibility methods.
Body
1. Section 1 defines the notion of robustness, and argues for its importance.
2. Section 1 devoted to the basic aspects of the FLC decision making logic.
3. Section 2 gives the background of the problem which includes xxx
4. Section 2 discusses some problems with and approaches to, natural language understanding.
5. Section 2 explains how flexibility which often ... can be expressed in terms of fuzzy time window
6. Section 3 discusses the aspects of fuzzy set theory that are used in the ...
7. Section 3 describes the system itself in a general way, including the ….. and also discusses how to evaluate system performance.
8. Section 3 describes a new measure of xx.
9. Section 3 demonstrates the use of fuzzy possibility theory in the analysis of xx.
10. Section 3 is a fine description of fuzzy formulation of human decision.
11. Section 3, is developed to the modeling and processing of fuzzy decision rules
12. The main idea of the FLC is described in Section 3 while Section 4 describes the xx strategies.
13. Section 3 and 4 show experimental studies for verifying the proposed model.
14. Section 4 discusses a previous fuzzy set based approach to cost variance investigation.
15. Section 4 gives a specific example of xxx.
16. Section 4 is the experimental study to make a fuzzy model of memory process.
17. Section 4 contains a discussion of the implication of the results of Section 2 and 3.
18. Section 4 applies this fuzzy measure to the analysis of xx and illustrate its use on experimental data.
19. Section 5 presents the primary results of the paper: a fuzzy set model ..
20. Section 5 contains some conclusions plus some ideas for further work.
21. Section 6 illustrates the model with an example.
22. Various ways of justification and the reasons for their choice are discussed very briefly in Section 2.
23. In Section 2 are presented the block diagram expression of a whole model of human DM system
24. In Section 2 we shall list a collection of basic assumptions which a ... scheme must satisfy.
25. In Section 2 of this paper, we present representation and uniqueness theorems for the fundamental measurement of fuzziness when the domain of discourse is order dense.
26. In Section 3, we describe the preliminary results of an empirical study
currently in progress to verify the measurement model and to construct membership functions.
27. In Section 5 is analyzed the inference process through the two kinds of inference experiments...
This Section
1. In this section, the characteristics and environment under which MRP is designed are described.
2. We will provide in this section basic terminologies and notations which are necessary for the understanding of subsequent results.Next Section
2. The next section describes the mathematics that goes into the computer implementation of such fuzzy logic statements.
3. However, it is cumbersome for this purpose and in practical applications the formulae were rearranged and simplified as discussed in the next section.
4. The three components will be described in the next two section, and an example of xx analysis of a computer information system will then illustrate their use.
5. We can interpret the results of Experiments I and II as in the following sections.
6. The next section summarizes the method in a from that is useful for arguments based on xx
Summary
1. This paper concludes with a discussion of future research consideration in section 5.
2. Section 5 summarizes the results of this investigation.
3. Section 5 gives the conclusions and future directions of research.
4. Section 7 provides a summary and a discussion of some extensions of the paper.
5. Finally, conclusions and future work are summarized
6. The basic questions posed above are then discussed and conclusions are drawn.
7. Section 7 is the conclusion of the paper.
Chapter 0. Abstract
1. A basic problem in the design of xx is presented by the choice of a xx rate for the measurement of experimental variables.
2. This paper examines a new measure of xx in xx based on fuzzy mathematics which overcomes the difficulties found in other xx measures.
3. This paper describes a system for the analysis of the xx.
4. The method involves the construction of xx from fuzzy relations.
5. The procedure is useful in analyzing how groups reach a decision.
6. The technique used is to employ a newly developed and versatile xx algorithm.
7. The usefulness of xx is also considered.
8. A brief methodology used in xx is discussed.
9. The analysis is useful in xx and xx problem.
10. A model is developed for a xx analysis using fuzzy matrices.
11. Algorithms to combine these estimates and produce a xx are presented and justified.
12. The use of the method is discussed and an example is given.
13. Results of an experimental applications of this xx analysis procedure are given to illustrate the proposed technique.
14. This paper analyses problems in
15. This paper outlines the functions carried out by ...
16. This paper includes an illustration of the ...
17. This paper provides an overview and information useful for approaching
18. Emphasis is placed on the construction of a criterion function by which the xx in achieving a hierarchical system of objectives are evaluated.
19. The main emphasis is placed on the problem of xx
20. Our proposed model is verified through experimental study.
21. The experimental results reveal interesting examples of fuzzy phases of: xx, xx
22. The compatibility of a project in terms of cost, and xx are likewise represented by linguistic variables.
23. A didactic example is included to illustrate the computational procedure
Chapter 1. Introduction
Time
1. Over the course of the past 30 years, .. has emerged form intuitive
2. Technological revolutions have recently hit the industrial world
3. The advent of ... systems for has had a significant impact on the
4. The development of ... is explored
5. During the past decade, the theory of fuzzy sets has developed in a variety of directions
6.The concept of xx was investigated quite intensively in recent years
7. There has been a turning point in ... methodology in accordance with the advent of ...
8. A major concern in ... today is to continue to improve...
9. A xx is a latecomer in the part representation arena.
10. At the time of this writing, there is still no standard way of xx
11. Although a lot of effort is being spent on improving these weaknesses, the efficient and effective method has yet to be developed.
12. The pioneer work can be traced to xx [1965].
13. To date, none of the methods developed is perfect and all are far from ready to be used in commercial systems.
Objective / Goal / Purpose
1. The purpose of the inference engine can be outlined as follows:
2. The ultimate goal of the xx system is to allow the non experts to utilize the
existing knowledge in the area of manual handling of loads, and to provide intelligent, computer aided instruction for xxx.
3. The paper concerns the development of a xx
4. The scope of this research lies in
5. The main theme of the paper is the application of rule based decision making.
6. These objectives are to be met with such thoroughness and confidence as to permit ...
7. The objectives of the ... operations study are as follows:
8. The primary purpose/consideration/objective of
9. The ultimate goal of this concept is to provide
10. The main objective of such a ... system is to
11. The aim of this paper is to provide methods to construct such probability distribution.
12. In order to achieve these objectives, an xx must meet the following
requirements:
13. In order to take advantage of their similarity
14. more research is still required before final goal of ... can be completed
15. In this trial, the objective is to generate...
16. for the sake of concentrating on ... research issues
17. A major goal of this report is to extend the utilization of a recently developed procedure for the xx.
18. For an illustrative purpose, four well known OR problems are studied in presence of fuzzy data: xx.
19. A major thrust of the paper is to discuss approaches and strategies for structuring ..methods
20. This illustration points out the need to specify
21. The ultimate goal is both descriptive and prescriptive.
22. Chapter 2. Literature Review
23. A wealth of information is to be found in the statistics literature, for example, regarding xx
24. A considerable amount of research has been done .. during the last decade
25. A great number of studies report on the treatment of uncertainties associated with xx.
26. There is considerable amount of literature on planning
27. However, these studies do not provide much attention to uncertainty in xx.
28. Since then, the subject has been extensively explored and it is still under investigation as well in
methodological aspects as in concrete applications.
29. Many research studies have been carried out on this topic.
30. Problem of xx draws recently more and more attention of system analysis.
31. Attempts to resolve this dilemma have resulted in the development of
32. Many complex processes unfortunately, do not yield to this design procedure and have, therefore, not yet been automated.
33. Most of the methods developed so far are deterministic and /or probabilistic in nature.
34. The central issue in all these studies is to
35. The problem of xx has been studied by other investigators, however, these studies have been based upon classical statistical approaches.
36. Applied ... techniques to
37. Characterized the ... system as
38. Developed an algorithm to
39. Developed a system called ... which
40. Uses an iterative algorithm to deduce
41. Emphasized the need to
42. Identifies six key issues surrounding high technology
43. A comprehensive study of the... has been undertaken
44. Much work has been reported recently in these filed
45. Proposed/Presented/State that/Described/Illustrated/
Indicated/Has shown / showed/Address/Highlights
46. Point out that the problem of
47. A study on ...was done / developed by []
48. Previous work, such as [] and [], deal only with
49. The approach taken by [] is
写作技巧